Which ancient dynasty of India had the longest period of rule?

 

• The Alupa also known as Alva as an ancient ruling dynasty of India
• From circa 2nd century C.E to 15th century C.E.
• They ruled over coastal Karnataka lasted for about 1200 years.

• Common languages: Sanskrit, Tulu and Kannada.
• Religion: Hinduism and Jainism..
• Government : Monarchy

• Later they became the vassals of the Chalukyas Dynasty , Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Hoysalas Empire with the change in political scenario of Southern India.
• ·The Alvas or Alupas were a minor dynasty in Western Karnataka but the longest reigning dynasty of Tulu Nadu that ruled without interuption for almost 1000 - 1200 years over the small territory of coastal Karnataka.
• The Alupas were one of the three dynasties that issued gold coins as early as 8th century CE. The gold that used to mint coins came from trade with the Romans, Arabs and from the adjacent kingdom of Gangas. No other ancient dynasties of the south have issued that many varieties of gold coins as Alupas and Gangas did.

They built some temples in their area of rule

1. Sri Rajarajeshwari Temple, Polal

2. Sri Manjunatheshwara Temple, Kadri

3. Sri Mahishamardini Temple, Neelavara

4. Sri Panchalingeshwara Temple, Vittla

5. Sri Anantheshwara Temple, Udupi

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alupa_dynasty

Major Alliances Between Kingdoms During the Mahabharata Period

Introduction

The Mahabharata, one of the greatest epics of ancient India, presents a detailed account of political, military, and dynastic alliances that shaped the course of the Kurukshetra War. The alliances among kingdoms were forged through marriages, diplomatic relations, and mutual interests in power dynamics. These alliances played a crucial role in the battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, determining the composition of each side's army and influencing the war’s outcome.

This analysis explores the key alliances during the Mahabharata period, their political motivations, and their significance in shaping the conflict.

Political Landscape Before the Kurukshetra War

Before the war, the Indian subcontinent was divided into several powerful kingdoms, each having its own rulers, interests, and conflicts. The two dominant factions, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, sought to strengthen their positions by forging alliances with various rulers.

The alliances were built on factors such as:

1. Dynastic Marriages - Strengthening ties through matrimonial relationships.
2. Military Support - Gaining warriors and armies for the impending war.
3. Political Strategy - Aligning with kingdoms for mutual benefits.
4. Old Friendships and Rivalries - Choosing sides based on historical relations.

Alliances of the Pandavas

1. The Yadava Alliance (Krishna and Balarama)

The Yadavas, led by Lord Krishna and his brother Balarama, were among the most powerful clans during the Mahabharata period. Krishna, an ardent supporter of the Pandavas, played a crucial role in guiding them throughout their struggles. Though Krishna refused to wield weapons, he became Arjuna’s charioteer, acting as a strategist and counselor.

However, the Yadavas remained divided, as Krishna supported the Pandavas, while Balarama, adhering to neutrality, refused to fight.

2. The Panchala Kingdom (King Drupada and Draupadi)

Drupada, the king of Panchala, initially had a rivalry with Drona but later allied with the Pandavas after Arjuna won Draupadi’s hand in marriage. Draupadi’s swayamvara served as a pivotal moment, cementing Panchala’s support for the Pandavas. Drupada’s son, Dhrishtadyumna, was born from a yajna specifically to kill Dronacharya, making him a key commander in the Pandava army.

3. The Matsya Kingdom (King Virata)

The Pandavas spent their final year of exile incognito in the kingdom of Virata. After their identity was revealed, Virata aligned with them, offering his son, Uttar, and a large army to their cause. Virata’s daughter, Uttara, was later married to Arjuna’s son, Abhimanyu, further strengthening this alliance.

4. The Kekaya Kingdom

The Kekaya brothers, strong allies of the Pandavas, provided substantial military support. They were related to the Pandavas through their mother, Madri, making their loyalty stronger.

5. The Chedi Kingdom (King Shishupala and Dhrishtaketu)

Although Shishupala, the former king of Chedi, was an enemy of Krishna, his successor, Dhrishtaketu, was a firm ally of the Pandavas and fought on their side in the war.

6. The Nagas (Ulupi’s Support)

Ulupi, a Naga princess and one of Arjuna’s wives, ensured the support of the Nagas, who played a minor but significant role in supporting the Pandavas.

7. The Rakshasa Kingdom (Ghatotkacha and the Rakshasas)

Ghatotkacha, the son of Bhima and the Rakshasi Hidimba, led a contingent of Rakshasas in the war. His formidable skills significantly weakened the Kaurava army before he was slain by Karna using Indra’s celestial weapon.

8. The Magadha Kingdom (King Sahadeva)

Sahadeva, the ruler of Magadha (not to be confused with the Pandava Sahadeva), aligned with the Pandavas and provided military assistance in the war.

Alliances of the Kauravas

1. The Hastinapura Allies (The Kuru Dynasty and Their Supporters)

The Kauravas, being the ruling faction of Hastinapura, commanded significant influence over many kingdoms, gathering a formidable army under Duryodhana’s leadership.

2. The Anga Kingdom (King Karna)

Karna, the foster son of a charioteer but later crowned the king of Anga by Duryodhana, was one of the strongest allies of the Kauravas. His unwavering loyalty to Duryodhana was crucial for their cause.

3. The Sindhu Kingdom (King Jayadratha)

Jayadratha, the king of Sindhu, was married to Duryodhana’s sister, making him a natural ally of the Kauravas. He played a pivotal role in blocking the Pandavas on the thirteenth day of the war, leading to Abhimanyu’s tragic death.

4. The Kamboja Kingdom

The Kambojas, known for their fierce cavalry, sided with the Kauravas and provided an excellent contingent of warriors.

5. The Gandhara Kingdom (Shakuni and His Influence)

Shakuni, the king of Gandhara and maternal uncle of Duryodhana, was a key strategist for the Kauravas. His influence extended beyond warfare, as he was instrumental in orchestrating the infamous dice game that led to the Pandavas' exile.

6. The Madra Kingdom (King Shalya)

Shalya, the ruler of Madra and the brother of Madri (the Pandavas’ mother), was initially inclined to support the Pandavas. However, through clever diplomacy, Duryodhana managed to secure his alliance, making him the commander-in-chief of the Kaurava army after Karna’s death.

7. The Pragjyotisha Kingdom (King Bhagadatta)

Bhagadatta, the ruler of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam), was an ally of the Kauravas and contributed a significant elephant force to the war.

8. The Bahlika Kingdom

Bahlika, the elder brother of King Shantanu and granduncle of both Pandavas and Kauravas, fought on Duryodhana’s side despite his advanced age.

Neutral Kingdoms and Their Stance

Some powerful kingdoms, like the Vrishnis (Yadavas), remained neutral despite their internal divisions. Balarama chose to abstain from the war, opting for pilgrimage instead. Similarly, Rukmi, the brother of Rukmini (Krishna’s wife), offered to join the Pandavas but was rejected by Arjuna, leaving him out of the conflict.

Significance of These Alliances

The alliances formed before and during the Kurukshetra War illustrate the complexity of ancient Indian politics. The war was not merely a battle between cousins but a full-scale conflict involving nearly every major kingdom of the time. These alliances influenced the strategies, strengths, and eventual outcomes of the war.

• Strategic Marriages played a key role in forming bonds between kingdoms.
• Diplomatic Maneuvering determined who joined which side.
• Loyalty and Betrayal were seen throughout, with some kings switching sides or being tricked into alliances.
• Divine Interventions such as Krishna’s presence on the Pandava side added another layer to the war’s significance.

Conclusion

The Mahabharata war was a culmination of intricate political, familial, and military alliances that had been brewing for years. The Pandavas, despite being outnumbered, secured key alliances that helped them triumph. Meanwhile, the Kauravas’ over-reliance on certain warriors like Karna and Bhishma ultimately led to their downfall. These alliances provide deep insights into ancient Indian warfare, diplomacy, and governance, making the Mahabharata not just a story of conflict but a detailed study of power dynamics in ancient India.

How did ancient Indians calculate Jupiter's orbital period so accurately?

 Ancient Indian astronomers combined their observational and mathematical skills, and knowledge of celestial mechanics, to accurately calculate Jupiter's orbital period. They have made some remarkable contributions to astronomy,

They relied on meticulous naked-eye observations of celestial bodies, such as Jupiter, and tracked the planet's position relative to the fixed stars in the background, over long periods. They used simple instruments like gnomons (vertical sticks) and armillary spheres to measure angles and positions of celestial objects. (An armillary sphere is a model of the objects in the sky, consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centered on Earth or the Sun, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and the ecliptic.)

Hindu planispheric astrolabe in brass, single plate, made for Raja Ramasimha by Sivalala in 1870. Engraved in Sanskrit with instrument laid out for the latitude of Bundi (25º 28'), Rajasthan, India. Science Museum.

The ancient Indian astronomical texts, known as Siddhantas, provided systematic methods for calculating the positions and motions of the visible planets. The Surya Siddhanta, one of the most famous texts, contains detailed descriptions of planetary motions and methods for calculating their positions. . The Surya Siddhanta includes tables of sine values. Yes, Indian astronomers developed and used trigonometric functions, such as sine and cosine, to perform precise calculations.

By observing Jupiter's position relative to the background stars, ancient Indian astronomers determined its orbital period. They noted that Jupiter takes 12 years to complete one full orbit around the Sun.