Which is the most powerful snake according to Hindu mythology?

 Vritra is the most powerful snake in Hindu mythology.. Vritra is also known as Ahi in the Rig Ved which literally translates to serpent or snake. He is trillions of times above fodders like Ravana, Hiranyakashipu or other demons..

Vritra performed penance for one of the longest tenures, ie sixty thousand years.. therefore he posessed immense ascetic power.. In addition to this, Brahma given him power + all kinds of illusions..

Indra was empowered by the full might of all Devs while he faced Vritra in battle.

O Dhananjaya, all celestial weapons arewith Indra. The celestials, from fear of Vritra, imparted at the time all their might to Sakra. Gathered together in one place, thou wilt obtain allweapons. Go thou unto Sakra, he will give thee all his weapons. Taking the bow set thou out this very day in order to behold Purandara."

But still was defeated and knocked out by the serpent demon. Vasisht revived Indra and empowers the lord of gods with his own might. In addition to this, Shiva gives a portion of his power to Indra and weakened Vritra with his Shiva - Jvara (which is embodiment of Virabhadra).

'While Vasava of great energy was thus being restored to consciousness by the high-souled Vasishtha, his strength became greatly enhanced. The illustrious chastiser of Paka then, relying upon his intelligence, had recourse to high Yoga and with its aid dispelled these illusions of Vritra. Then Vrihaspati, the son of Angiras, and those foremost of Rishis possessed of great prosperity, beholding the prowess of Vritra, repaired to Mahadeva, and impelled by the desire of benefiting the three worlds, urged him to destroy the great Asura. The energy of that illustrious lord of the universe thereupon assumed the character of a fierce fever and penetrated the body of Vritra the lord of Asuras.

In addition to all these amps, Vishnu himself posessed Indra's Vajra.

The illustrious and divine Vishnu, adored of all the worlds, bent upon protecting the universe, entered the thunderbolt of Indra. Then Vrihaspati of great intelligence and Vasishthaof exceeding energy, and all the other foremost of Rishis, repairing to Him of a hundred sacrifices, viz., the boon-giving Vasava, the adored of all theworlds, addressed him, saying, 'Slay Vritra, O puissant one, without delay!'"

Maheswara said, 'Yonder, O Sakra, stands the great Vritra, accompanied by a great force. He is the soul of the universe, capable of going everywhere,endued with large powers of illusion, and possessed of great celebrity. This foremost of Asuras is, therefore, incapable of being vanquished by even the three worlds united together. Aided by Yoga, do thou slay him, O chief of the deities. Do not disregard him. For full sixty thousand years, O chief of the celestials, Vritra practised the severest penances for obtaining strength.Brahman gave him the boons he had solicited, viz., the greatness that belongs to Yogins, large powers of illusion, excess of might, and superabundant energy. I impart to thee my energy, O Vasava! The Danava has now lost his coolness. Do thou, therefore, slay him now with thy thunderbolt.

The full might of all Devs + Vishnu + Shiva and Vasishta’s energy empowering Indra + Shiva - Jvara weakening Vritra was needed to being this demon down.

So he's undoubtedly most powerful snake or serpent in all epics or Puranas.

Is there a reason why Hindu gods are depicted as having only male children and not female ones? Is this a reflection of patriarchal culture?

 Nonsense.

The goddess Svadha had two daughters, Menavati and Dharani.

Menavati and Himavan have daughters, Ragavati, Parvati, and Ganga.

Shiva has four daughters: Narmada, Ashokasundari, Jyoti, and Maisamma.

Ashokasundari had a hundred daughters!

Ganesha has a daughter, Santoshi.

Indra has daughters, Jayanti and Devasena.

Soma Deva has two daughters, Bhadra and Jyotsnakali.

Surya has five daughters: Yamuna, Tapati, Vishti, Bhadra, and Suvarchala.

Lakshmi and Vishnu have a daughter, Sundaravalli.

Samudra the ocean god had a daughter, Savarna.

Yama has a daughter, Sunita.

Krishna had many daughters, like Sushila, Charumati, Bhadra, and others.

Prajapati Daksha had eighty-four daughters!

The mountain god Meru Deva had two daughters, Ayati and Niryati.

Smriti, the goddess of memory, and her husband Prajapati Angiras had four daughters: Sinivali, Kuhu, Raka, and Anumati.

Shukra had daughters, Devayani, Araja, and Divi.

Bhumi Devi has a daughter, Sita.

I could keep going. Hindu gods are depicted as having many female children, not only male ones.

Who is considered the divine architect in Hindu culture?

 Vishwakarman (the “All-Accomplishing” or “All-Maker”), also called Twashtar, is the architect, carpenter, craftsman, and engineer among the Hindu Devas. The Mahabharata praises him as “The lord of the arts, executor of a thousand handicrafts, the carpenter of the gods, the most eminent of artisans, the fashioner of all ornaments... and a great and immortal god.” He is a God of Divine creative power. He built the Devas’ cities, towns, palaces, flying chariots, and weapons, and many great images of the Gods. He even built the whole Swarga Loka, the Heavenly abode of Lord Indra. Also especially renowned are his design of Kubera’s city Alakapuri on Mount Mandara, and the celestial Chaitraratha gardens upon the mountain. He is also famous for architecting the earthly cities of Golden Lanka and Dwaraka.

Traditionally, Hindu architects and mechanics traced the lineages of their science back to his ancient revelations. Hindu temple architecture is based on ancient sacred texts like Sthapatya Veda, Brihat Sanhita, Vastu Shastra, and the Shilpa Shastras, in accordance with the design principles and guidelines laid down by Vishwakarman thousands of years ago, incorporating elements of astronomy and sacred geometry, such that the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner consciousness.

He is the patron deity of Hindu architects, engineers, craftspeople, artisans, and artists. Around September every year, Vishwakarma Puja is celebrated - a time for workers and craftspeople to resolve to increase productivity and gain divine inspiration for creating novel products. Hindu artisans, craftspeople, mechanics, smiths, welders, industrial workers, and factory workers commemorate Vishwakarma Puja with great fervor. This ritual usually takes place within the factory premises, on the shop floor, and in other industrial areas, and the otherwise mundane workshops come alive with parties while the workers ceremonially consecrate their tools and machines. They also distribute food to the needy.

There is also another divine architect in Hindu culture: Mayasura, Vishwakarma Deva’s counterpart among the Asuras. Mayasura is another legendary architect and master craftsman, praised in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and many Puranas. The Tamil epic Silappadikaram extols Maya as the divine architect who laid down principles and practices of architecture and town planning. He too authored an encyclopedic treatise on architecture, the Mayamata, which still serves as a valuable reference source for Vastu Shastra and guidance for architects and sculptors, especially in South India. He famously built Tripura - the three flying cities of gold, silver, and iron, for the Asuras.

Can you recommend any Hindu temples to visit in Kathmandu, Nepal?

 The #1 Hindu temple to visit in Kathmandu is Pashupatinath. I say this even though it’s a Shiva temple and I’m a Krishna devotee. It doesn’t matter; go to Pashupatinath, it is a true place of power, the most sacred temple in all of Nepal, and in my experience it lived up to its reputation.

I spent a whole day there from morning to night and still didn’t see everything; it’s a huge complex, the largest temple complex in the world, containing over 518 temples (the Gorakshanath temple is one of the nicer ones, beside an amazing banyan tree) and a beautiful sacred forest full of birds, with more little temples hidden in it.

Indeed one could spend multiple days basking in the atmosphere. There are beautiful hidden shrines all over, from up in the rocky hills to down by the river in the forest.

The best day to visit is Monday, its main holy day. And the best time by far to be there is evening, for evening Arati and Kirtan at the Bagmati River, peaking with Shiva Tandava Stotram. Although that said, a traveler’s tip: You will be charged 1000 Nepali rupees to enter if you don’t look ethnically South Asian (if you do look ethnically South Asian then it’s free), but if you come before 6am then it’s free for everyone, and you can stay as long as you wish. Also note that if you don’t look ethnically South Asian then you will not be allowed to enter the primary two of the 518 temples, but all the rest of the compound is open.

The whole complex is dedicated to Pashupatinath, Shiva as Lord of Animals. Fittingly, the place is bustling with animal life – thousands of monkeys, many cows, a big bull, pigeons, mice, many lizards, I even saw this snake:

The complex has a feeding station for wandering animals.

Friendly cows wander among the temples, living on Shiva’s Prasad. There are more than thirty sacred temple deer in the temple Mrigasthali (deer park), the most beautiful deer I have ever seen, and you can hand-feed them and pet them.

The complex also contains a small Gaushala. The sacred story of Pashupatinath Temple is that in ancient times, Shiva and Parvati took the forms of a stag and deer and lived here peacefully for some time. The Devas eventually came seeking Shiva for some purpose, but He didn’t want to leave so they chased Him. A Deva grabbed Shiva’s antler, but He broke it off and fled. The fallen antler transformed into the Pashupatinath Linga. Over the years it became buried in the earth. Kamadhenu the Divine Cow came each day and poured milk over that spot of the ground. Finally a farmer saw this, dug up the spot and discovered the Linga, and the temple was founded. The whole place feels like Heaven to me. Hundreds of Shiva Lingas are everywhere; some are reserved for priestly officiation, but you can pick one of hundreds and worship it yourself however you like. For me it was truly a place of deep spiritual fulfillment.

Do be prepared to see death face-to-face. The central river area is constantly lined with burning human corpses all along the ghats. You will see the faces of the dead, and hear the wails of raw grief. The whole atmosphere of Pashupatinath is full of crematory smoke, day and night, with a haze in the sky; it creates an otherworldly atmosphere and definitely fosters a sense of detachment and awareness of death and impermanence. I did bathe before bed to wash it off.

It is said that Shiva Himself promised that one who dies in the Pashupatinatth premises is guaranteed a human body in their next birth, regardless of karma. Of course, if one has treated others with horrible cruelty then it may be a miserable and severely disadvantaged human birth, but still human.

My #2 favorite temple in Kathmandu (taking Kathmandu to refer to the Kathmandu valley; all of these sites are within a couple hours’ taxi ride of each other at the most, though some of them are outside the old city of Kathmandu proper) was Changu Narayan Temple, the most ancient temple in Nepal (at least whose date is recorded). Again there are lots of satellite shrines, but the main temple is the primary attraction. My experience of Darshan there was wonderful – the best I had in Nepal. I got to stand and hold direct eye contact with the main Changu Narayan Murti for as long as I wanted, and sit and chant and meditate right in front of the open doors. I chanted the whole Vishnu Sahasranama and meditated over an hour. The temple guard, a woman, armed and tough-looking, got curious and asked where I was from; she was quite friendly. I would advise most visitors to leave alone the powerful Chhinnamasta temple which is also in the courtyard.

Another great one is Budhanilkantha Temple up in the Shivapuri foothills north of town, a famous temple of the fifteen-foot-long Dreaming Narayana lying in the water of a pond, reclining on the coils of the Shesha Naga. It reminds me of Balaji; I felt the same massive power, very real and palpable, emanating from that Murti. My mother has been captivated by that particular Narayan for decades, though she has never been to Nepal. I made some special offerings to Him for her; it’s easy to bring some marigold garlands or other offerings. When I was there, I found them in the midst of chanting the entire Shrimad Bhagavata Mahapurana in Sanskrit, with Nepali translation after each chapter, with shaded seating for a crowd of local listeners. I spent a long time at this temple. The air was nice and clear up there.

I was in Kathmandu during Diwali, which in Nepal is also called Tihar. Wanting to say hello to Lakshmi on Her big night, I went to the Maha Lakshmi Temple in Patan – not one I’d ever heard of or been recommended, I just asked people on the street where the nearest Lakshmi temple was, and went straight there. It was very nice, but of course it was the temple’s biggest night of the year; I’m not sure what it’s like on a normal day.

Hundreds of diyas were burning in the open courtyard in Lakshmi’s honor. There was no priest; devotees were just worshipping the Lakshmi Murti directly. We all touched Her with our hands and everything, lovingly rubbing turmeric pastes onto Her body and such. Everyone worshipped Her with an intense, palpable devotion, and this format lent a sense of intimacy rare in temples (more usual in home Puja), that it was just the devotees offering directly to Lakshmi with no intermediary priest. Everyone was just doing Puja in their own preferred way – some people were lighting diyas and incense, some were ringing bells, some were offering fruits, some were anointing the Murti with turmeric and kumkum, some were doing Parikrama, whatever each person felt like doing, and it all came together beautifully even without organization. This was not familiar to me from other temples but it made me very happy, I really got into it. There was no vocal chanting; just the ringing of bells, and lots of people whispering and murmuring Mantras quietly. It was a heavenly atmosphere. Some people also brought a cow into the temple courtyard, and worshipped and fed the cow.

A couple days after Tihar Lakshmi Puja is Bhai Dhuj, when sisters give loving blessings to their brothers. But what about men without sisters? Kathmandu has a rather novel solution: “Public sisters”, priestesses who are ritually consecrated as the sister of every sisterless man, and who are available in a certain temple to give their sisterly blessings to every man who comes that day. The temple is open only on this one day each year; otherwise it is inaccessible to the public. Since I was in Kathmandu that day, and I do not have any sisters, I went for the blessing. The temple is in the heart of the great Rani Pokhari, the Queen’s Pool. There was a long line of sisterless men. When I reached the front, the public sister was clearly surprised to see a white man but then she gave her blessings with noticeable tenderness and kindness.

If you are interested in the energies of Kali, you may surely experience them at Dakshinkali Temple in the forest outside Pharping, in the hills to the south of Kathmandu. This is the principal Kali temple in Nepal. But a word of warning: animal sacrifices are regularly done at this temple. At least one chicken every Tuesday, and a few chickens and usually a goat every Saturday, far more on big festivals like Dashain (so the sacrificial priest himself told me; I chatted with him after he finished hosing blood off the floor). So, you can decide if and when to visit based on if you wish to see such things. I did, and there was a lot of blood. This is no gentle, peaceful Kali; this is Kali the blood-smeared predator, Her Shakti emanating from Her grisly idol almost radioactive; the quality of Her Darshan feels very violent and intense.

For slightly less intense (and also more centrally located) Kali Darshan, you can go to the Temple of the White Kali (Shvetakali), called Naradevi Temple, and the Temple of the Red Kali (Raktakali), both in the old city of Kathmandu, in the winding ancient lanes. At the former (at least) they used to perform Narabali (human sacrifices). They still kill a buffalo with a sword in there once per year, at Dashain. These are both temples that I simply came across while wandering the old city.

There is a nice Shiva temple just outside the Kathmandu Durbar Square, facing the main entrance.

I had nice Darshan at the royal Krishna temple of Patan, in the ancient palace courtyard.

Akasha Bhairava Temple is very centrally located and has an intensely potent Murti.

This question asks for Hindu temples, but even as a Hindu there are at least a couple of great Buddhist temples in Kathmandu that I would recommend Hindus to visit if you’re in town for several days: Swayambhunath Temple and Boudhanath Stupa. Both are quite spectacular and I’m glad I saw them. Some Hindu deities are also worshipped at both these temple complexes.

My other recommendation would be, just wander! You will come upon dozens of extraordinary ancient temples not mentioned in any guidebook just walking around the streets of the old cities of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Patan.

Which is your favourite Hindu mythology story?

 A story from Ramcharit manas wrote by Goswami Tulsidas. We all know that Narad muni is Brahmachari but Once He also wanted to marry a princess. The story goes like this-

Once Lord Shiva blessed Narada to meditate in Tapovan, a forest for Tapasya (meditation), and no one would be able to disturb him. He started his meditation and this became the matter of concern to Lord Indra as he was worried about his aim of meditation. To disturb him he decided to send Agni (god of fire), Varuna (god of rain), and Vayu (god of wind). Thus they began their task. Varuna made it rain, Vayu made the wind blow and later Agni lit the place on fire. But of no use and all of them returned to heaven. Indra then approached Kamadev, the god of Love, to disturb him. He tried every possible thing from beautiful dancing girls to buzzing bees to birds humming. It was an atmosphere of love. But Narad remained unaffected. He defeated everything not with Shiva’s blessings but due to his attainment.

After completing the meditation, Proud Narada met Lord Shiva on Kailash and boasted how he defeated Agni, Vayu, Varuna, and Kamadev. All that Shiva had to say was not to say anything to Vishnu. But Narada couldn’t resist and boasted everything before Vishnu. To which the latter replied, “Be on guard.” Narada was so happy that he couldn’t read Vishnu’s mind.

On his way back he visited King Sheelanidhi’s palace and was informed about princess Shrimati’s swayamvar. He fell in love with the princess the moment he saw her and wished to marry her. On reading her fortune he came to know that whoever marries the princess would be the king of the three worlds. He approached Vishnu for help and requested him to make him look like Vishnu’s avatar ‘Hari’ the most handsome prince in the ceremony so that the princess chose him as her companion.

Finally, the day of ‘Swayamvar’ arrived. Narada dressed in a royal avatar walked confidently in the ceremony. He knew he was the most handsome and the princess would choose him. But after looking at his face the princess busted out laughing and walked past him and then gave the garland to the last king, Lord Vishnu. This didn’t go well with Narada and told the princess that he deserves the garland. Everyone at the ceremony teased him and asked him to look into the mirror. After looking in the mirror he was in for a surprise as he was not a handsome looking man but a monkey. Unfortunately, Narada was unaware of the fact that Vishnu’s other name ‘Hari’ also meant a monkey.

Narada was annoyed and asked Vishnu the reason behind his actions. He said, “I asked you to make me the most handsome prince but instead you turned me into a monkey. And because of you, I have lost the love of my life.” Later he cursed Vishnu that he would also lose his beloved and will experience the pain of separation. And only monkeys would help you to get your love back.” To which Vishnu smiled and accepted the curse. He said he will take birth as a human being and Goddess Lakshmi will be his wife and they both would endure separation.

Later Lord Vishnu told him that he made the princess and city by his “Maya” because you got proud inside you which is harmful to every individual and It is my duty to save my devotees from any harm. Narad Realised his mistake and felt sorry about it.

Who is Chandraghanta in Hindu mythology?

Goddess Chandraghanta means ,one who head adorns lunar bell.

Mother : Goddess Parvati is known as cosmic mother.

She as Goddess Shakti enervates all planets and constellations.

Mind : Sacred texts depict Goddess Uma as controller of mind.

She controls mental prowess , emotions and creativity.

Healer : Many seers recommend her worship for those afflicted with mental problems.

Many astrologers also recommend her worship as a remedy for afflicted moon.

Manipur Chakra : Yogic and Shakta texts define her as the controller of Manipur Chakra.

Manipur Chakra is associated with mind, inner will , creativity.

Prayer : Sri Ganesh Ambika Gurubhyu Namah Sri Ram Jai Ram Jai Jai Ram Namo Parvatipataye Har Har Mahadev Jai Jai Jai Hanuman Gosai Kripa Karo Gurudev Ki Nai

Pic Credits : Google Images / Web

What is the importance of the Hindu goddess Brahmacharini?

 

Goddess Brahmacharini represents celibacy.

Celibacy : Goddess Brahmachaini is generally worshipped by monks and celibates.

Brahmacharya is also control over senses

Yogis and monks claim that Goddess Brahmacharini activates inner power.

Purity : Brahmacharya means inner and outer purity.

Brahmcharya means spiritual self discipline.

It means staying away from carnal desire and profanity.

Chakra : Goddess Brahmacharini proverbially rules over Swadhishtan Chakra.

Yogis state that this sacral Chakra controls emotions, inner energy.

Mother : Goddess Brahmacharini is universal mother and also adored as Goddess Uma , Parvati, Gauri.

Prayer : Sri Ganesh Ambika Gurubhyu Namah Sri Ram Jai Ram Jai Jai Ram Namo Parvatipataye Har Har Mahadev Jai Jai Jai Hanuman Gosai Kripa Karo Gurudev Ki Nai

Pic Credits : Google Images / Web

How old are some of the Hindu gods?

 

The Rig Vedic period is between 1,500 and 500 BC, though if we take oral tradition into consideration they are still older.

The Rig Vedic gods are actually parts of a mechanism that automatically detect and solve problems. There were no temples, idols, and rituals for these gods.

The Puranic Hindu gods are belong to a period between 500 BCE and 500 ACE.

The gods keep evolving continuously and it is not possible to fix an exact period.

Some of the Puranic gods like Indra, Yama, etc. are also Vedic gods. It is difficult to associate some of the Puranic gods with Vedic gods with same or similar name.

It is to be realized that Hindu gods are based on seven stage muscle tone based human thinking mechanism.

It has to be realized that Hindu gods symbolize the seven stages of the seven stage muscle tone based human thinking mechanism. The nature of these gods and the ways to appease them were understood in the Vedic and Puranic periods. Before this period Hindus used to have blind faith in gods. It is for this reason that Hindu gods are supposed to be universal and eternal.

What are the main Hindu deities of Kerala?

 A good percentage of mainstream Hindu deities as such are worshipped in Kerala. There are indeed conceptual differences in style of worship as well as its associated myths.

Kerala was originally part of the erstwhile Dravidian culture that was common around South. So many Dravidian concepts were strictly followed and worshiped as such. It must be noted, Vedic Hinduism or Brahminical version of Hinduism came much later. It was mostly after the 5th-8th century AD period, Brahminical Hinduism became mainstream. And one way it became popular, through acceptance and absorption of existing culture and faith into its Vedic traditions. So many deities and gods which were originally worshipped outside the Vedic Hinduism became part of it to such a degree, that its inseparable from Hinduism in Kerala. This includes even Buddhism and Jainism which was popular untill the rise of Brahminical faith

And due to it, such deities are seen only in Kerala or its nearby places, not much outside.

The key deities that are worshipped are;

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Krishna/Vishnu

The pictorial concept of Thiruvambady Krishna in Thrissur. Its one of the few temples that have Krishna idol as such as its deity and worshipped mostly as Baby Krishna

Krishna is indeed the most popular deity worshipped across Kerala. Its a god, which majority of Hindus in Kerala identify as close to heart. Krishan is mostly worshiped as either Baby Krishna (Unni Kannan) or as a kid or in teens. There are very few temples where Krishna is worshiped as an adult or as Dwarakadesh (Lord of Dwarka) or in his warrior form or as charioteer form. There are only two or three temples in Kerala, where Krishna is worshipped as Parathasarthy (charioteer of Arjuna). Generally Krishna is worshipped as alone. There is no concept of worship of Radhakrishna or Krishna-Rukmini/Satyabhama etc in Kerala.

One interesting part is that majority of Krishna temples actually have an idol of Lord Vishnu as such. There are only very few temples which have idol designed in form of Krishna.

This is primarily because in Kerala’s sole worship form- Tantra; there is no specific way to invoke Krishna as such. Tantra as such deals with the release of divine energies and control of it. Krishna as such is a sub-identity of Lord Vishnu as Krishna alone has no identity outside that of Vishnu. So every rites and mantras are related to Mahavishnu and hence most of the idols are that of Vishnu (in form of Chaturbahu Vishnu- The four-armed Vishnu).

The much popular Guruvayurappan- the Lord of Guruvayur temple

However there is a concept of assumption, ie devotees are free to assume the deity as to the form they like and over a period of time, many assumptions have become strong enough to give an identity as such. For example, the famous temple of Guruvayur is internationally renowned as Krishna temple, but the deity in the temple isn’t Krishna, rather Mahavishnu and every rite is done in name of Lord Vishnu. But devotees for a period of time assumed and widely believe its Lord Krishna there and worship the deity praying as Krishna despite seeing the deity in Lord Vishnu’s form. Its a classic case of assumed identity.

There is a reason for this historically. Since 8th century, Brahminical Hinduism was growing rapidly and it pushed for the rise of Brahminical powers that started gaining its foothold over the rapidly declining Chera Empire. A good percentage of Brahmins and their supporters (the Nair Lords) were into Vishnu worship (Vaishnavas). The Nampoothiris were hardcore Vedic Brahmins and Vishnu is essentially linked to the identity of Savitr, a key Vedic deity that accepts the Ahavisu (Vedic offerings) offered to the Gods in the sacrificial fire. In addition, Cheras as such was widely Shaivates, hence the rising Nampoothiri cult focused on building more on Vaishnava temples as a venue for their cultural rites.

Post end of Chera Empire in 12th century and the rise of Brahminical Kingdoms/feudalistic orders, Vaishnava culture got an official status and thus there was a heavy patronage in building and worshiping Lord Vishnu extensively. Most of the royal families in Kerala started identifying Vishnu as their protector deity and hence royal temples started coming up with Vishnu as the main deity.

By 15th century, Bhakti movement has started and the movement aggressively focused on the worship of Krishna cult. One reason with Krishna was primarily because the lord is easily identifiable to a much larger society. He can be one’s own baby whom we can cuddle or a kid in our house with whom we can play or a teenager with whom we can fall in love or as a great King whom we can seek protection as well as a great philosopher whose philosophies (Gita) can guide us. In short, Krishna is a better divine identity which all segments of society can easily identify much more than Vishnu which is more related to Vedic concepts. The popularity of numerous Bhakti literature, starting from Ramayanam to Krishnagatha or Narayeenam to Kuchelavritham, had made a huge impact over devotees that led to the growth of Krishna worship cult. Infact even today, almost every commoner irrespective of their religion or caste knows some part of much renowned Njanappana which we call as Malayalee’s Bhagavat Gita. These works helped to reinforce a strong Krishna worship cult among devotees that made many Vishnu temples to be assumed as Krishna temples, which still continues.

The national deities of two kingdoms of Kerala, Sree Poornathrayeesa of Cochin and Sree Padmanabha of Travancore, both being forms of Lord Vishnu.

Saying so, Vishnu identity as such is also worshiped in many places. Infact we have a case where Lord Vishnu was identified as Emperor of Travancore and the kingdom ruled in his behalf. The National deities of Travancore and Cochin Kingdom were Lord Padmanabha and Lord Poornathrayeesa, respectively both being in the identity of Lord Vishnu as such. The much well-known temple of Navamukunadan on banks of River Nila which represents the venue of the coronation of Kerala Rakshapurushan (Protector of Kerala) in medieval times for which endless wars and feuds were fought, is also Lord Vishnu in his original form. So essentially Vishnu/Krishna worship is so strong in Kerala. Even today, the official emblem of Kerala State is the Counch (Shanku), that represents Lord Vishnu.

Apart from these identities, there are very limited temples meant for other forms of Vishnu like Rama, Parasurama, Vamana, Narasimham etc which aren’t much popular as such.

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Shiva

Ernakulathappan, Lord Shiva as protector of Ernakulam (Kochi city)

Shiva is the second most popular deity in Kerala after Vishnu/Krishna. There are numerous Shiva temples in Kerala. Shiva as such was seen as the imperial god during times of Chera empire. Chera Emperors were adherent worshippers of Shiva and the official religious identity in times of Chera was that of Saivaite. Due to this, several grand Shiva temples were commissioned during the reign of Chera empire. This explains why much of Shiva temples in Kerala are so ancient.

Thiruvanchikulam, the most ancient Shiva temple in Kerala, regarded as the Imperial temple of Cheras

The imperial temple of Chera Empire was at Thiruvanchikulam near Kodungallor (near to Kochi) which was referred to as Vanchi, the older name of Chera Empire. Due to this factor, even after the disintegration of Chera Empires, the identity of much smaller the Travancore Kingdom was that of Vanchi and their official National anthem was Vancheesamangalam (Salutations to Lord Vanchinathan- Shiva) which was bit ironical as their national deity was Lord Vishnu in form of Padmanabha.

Zamorins of Kozhikode have consecrated Lord Shiva (Trivikrameswaran) as their royal deity for their capital city of Kozhikode which is now the famous Tali Mahadeva temple in the city center, though Zamorins were Vaishnavites and identify Guruvayurappan as their national deity.

Mostly we have temples only in identity as Lord Shiva itself. We rarely worship any other form of Shiva like Bhairava or Rudra or Daksinamurthy etc. Kerala has its own tradition of 108 Mahasivakshetrams or Great Shiva temples.

The extremely popular 4 ancient Shiva temples in clockwise direction- Peruvanam in Thrissur, Ettumanoor and Vaikom in Kottayam, Tali in Kozhikode

Shiva temples in Kerala are divided between Tali and Normal temples. Tali is a term given by Brahmins to those Shiva temples which they built or taken over from Cheras identity (read as Dravidian identity). As much of Shiva temples were originally built in Chera period, at the same time, Nampoothiris also built Shiva temples in Vedic style which they called as Tali. However such distinction is vague today as all Shiva temples were absorbed into the Tantric cult and there are only a handful of Shiva temples that follows outside the standard traditions.

Ezhava Shiva, as installed by Sree Naryana Guru that highlights the value of universal brotherhood sans caste or creed or religion.

Lord Shiva also played a key role during Kerala renaissance period when the famous reformer Sree Naryana Guru installed the first Non-Brahmin temple in the modern period. He consecrated an idol near the river banks at Aruvikkara in 1888 and when Brahmins questioned the legitimacy of a low caste consecrating a temple, he replied that he has installed an Ezhava Siva . The concept of Ezhava Shiva or Low caste Shiva played a key role in Kerala renaissance as it pushed the concept that God is much above casteism. The 4 lines which Guru wrote below the Shivalinga has captured the attention of entire Malayalees and gave a push for progressive ideals of Renaissance

JAATHIBHEDAM MATHADWESHAM EATHUMILLATHEY SARVARUM SODARATHWENA VAAZHUNNA MATHRUKASTHANAMANITHU

meaning- This model place is an ideal dwelling of all those who have no religion or caste, rather with a universal brotherhood.

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Bhagavati

Bhagavati/Devi as in Kumaranellore in Kottayam

The third most popular deity across Kerala is Bhagavathy which merely means Goddess. A very unique factor associated with Devi worship is that we have very less number of specific devi cult. Say there are very fewer temples dedicated to the specific goddess like Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga etc, rather its almost all dedicated to Mother Goddess- Bhagavathy. According to each occasion or festivities, the Bhagavati is assumed to take various forms, like that of Lakshmi-Saraswati etc. However, the worship as such is in common form.

However, there are several Parvathy Shrines as such. This is because, in Shiva temples, Parvathy as such is worshipped separately, mostly in a separate sub-shrine located right behind Shivalinga. In such cases, the identity- Parvathy as such is highlighted.

The concept of Balabhadra or Mahabhadra, a form of pacified Kali which is widely worshipped across Kerala as Bhagavati

Traditionally Kerala had a strong Bhadrakali worship cult. Much of the many popular Devi temples had a history of worshiping Kali as such in the ancient period. However, in tantric order, worship of Kali in her fierce form wasn’t recommended. It needed highly dedicated Nampoothiri priests who must be proficient enough to invoke Kali’s energies and control it as the belief is that any mistake in the rites can result in backfiring to the invoker. Due to this reason, the majority of Nampoothiris weren’t comfortable to worship Kali, hence the deity got pacified, reducing either to just Bhagavathy or as Balabhadra (a pacified form of Bhadrakali, pronounced as Belabhadra). Most of Bhagavathies are regarded as some form of Bhadra as such, but not Kali.

Choothankikkara Devi, one of the famous temple where the devi is considered to be in Trinity form, ie Saraswati in late night and early morning, Lakshmi in morning hours and Bhadra in evening.

Majority of Devi temples are considered to be trinity form of Devi. There is no concept of independent Lakshmi worship as one finds in North India as Lakshmi is combined with Vishnu worship or with Bhadra in Devi worship (hence the popular Devi chanting- Amme Naryana, Devi Naryana, Lakshmi Naryana, Bhadre Naryana).

Durga form of worship is also limited, but many royal families and warrior families do have family temples were Devi is worshiped in Warrior form. Infact due to vagueness in the definition of Bhagavathy, in many places, the goddess was assumed as the form of Durga, especially Balebhadra/Mahabhadra temples.

Sapthamathakal or Seven Mothers as worshipped in many temples.

Many temples in Kerala worships Sapthamathakal (the seven mothers) as sub-deities.

Kodungalloor devi, the fierce form of Kannagi similar to Bhadrakali as worshipped in Kerala

And in Kerala, Kannagi worship is very common. We believe, the heroine of Silaprathikkaram- Kannagi as a form of Bhadrakali and widely worshipped in Kerala. Infact many Bhadra temples have local myths linking to the story of Kannagi as such. The famous Attukkal temple in Trivandrum and Kodungallor temple are some of the extremely popular Kannagi shrines worshipped in the fierce form of Bhadra.

Komarams or Oracles are seen in many temples as part of old Dravidian traditions where they get into a trance-like state when they become Devis.

Due to this reason, the Chilambu (Anklets) and Pallival (The curved Sword) are regarded as the symbol of Devi and widely worshipped as such. The ancient Dravidian tradition of Oracles (Vellichapadu) where humans get into trance-like state due to being blessed by Goddess and their divine prophecies is also a widely respected tradition, especially in Malabar side.

Pallival and Chilambu, regarded as the symbol of Devi in Kerala, is widely worshipped as such.

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Sasthavu

Sastha or Dharmasastha is a very popular deity in Kerala. Infact it's very specific to South Indian traditions, especially Kerala-TN-Karnataka-AP regions.

The 8 forms of Dharmashatha as popularly worshipped in Kerala-TN

This tradition, however, is not part of Vedic Hinduism, rather part of Buddhist traditions of the past. Historically since the 3rd BC era, Buddhism and Jainism have gained a stronghold in South India, especially among upper strata of society. Buddhism had more popularity due to its liberal traditions when compared to comparatively harder Jainism. Sastha as such means Teacher as in Pali language which later adopted into Sanskrit and Old Tamil. So essentially Dharma-Sastha as such was a reference to Buddha- the eternal teacher of Dharma. However, over time, it got a concept of God (contrary to Vedic concept of Yama- the God of Dharma).

Hindu concept of Ayyappa/Sastha as Hariharasudhan or Son of Shiva and Vishnu in Mohini form.

There were intense worship traditions for Sastha in various forms across the South as Ayynar, Ayyappa, Cattan etc. However across South, with the rise of Brahminism, particularly in the 5th century, there was a degree of shared philosophies and the concept as such was slowly adopted into the Vedic concept which is reflected in the 7th-century work- Brahmanda Purna where Ayyappa slowly got a Vedic identity as Hariharasuthan (son of Shiva-Vishnu).

The most popular Sastha temple is that of Sabarimala Ayyappa, which has become the venue of world’s largest annual pilgrimage with nearly 40 Million pilgrims praying to the lord.

The rise of Cholas in South has also pushed for the growth of Ayyappa/Sastha as a Hindu deity, thus losing the last bit of its erstwhile Buddhist identity. Taking the cue from Chola tradition, Pandyas strongly worshipped the deity which sooner got transmitted into Chera Empire. Pandya princes (who later formed Pandalam-Poojnar dynasties in Central Travancore) who migrated into Kerala over a period of time essentially became flagbearer of this legend in its Hindu identity. In this period of the 9th-10th century, there was a rapid growth of Brahminical culture in Kerala and one approach of strengthening Brahminical supremacy was to absorb existing traditions into Brahminical Hinduism. Many Buddhist and Jain Temples soon became Hindu temples and the deities also absorbed within Vedic Hindu realms. Sastha effectively became part of this absorption process.

Vettakkuorumakan, a different form of Ayyappa as worshipped in Malabar and North Eastern parts of Tamil Nadu.

Multiple versions or concepts of Sastha became popular and some of them like Vettakkuorumakan (Divine Hunter) even became the family god of Chirakkal Kolathiris of North Kerala. So as Dharmasastha as such became a very popular god as equal to as Ganapati, by having a sub-shrine in almost all major temples across Kerala.

As Nampoothiris find hard to explain the difference between Vedic god- Yama (Hindu God of Dharma) and Dharmasastha (Adopted as God of Dharma in South), essentially the concept of Yama was slowly diminished in Kerala as mere God of Death and to some extent also got Tamasic shades (Negative shades). Many elements of Yama worship as done in Vedic period, got associated with Ayyappa/Dharmasastha like burning Niranjam (Coconut lamps) or wearing the black dress (which effectively became the spiritual holy color) or Dharmasastha’s relationship with Saturn (Shani) etc. So effectively Yama worship almost got eliminated in Kerala and effectively replaced by Dharmasastha.

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Nagas

Naga worship as in Kerala

Kerala has an extraordinary concept of worship of Snakes. Nagas/Sarpas hold a key position in Kerala’s worship culture. Almost 99% of Kerala’s temple have a sub-shrine to worship Nagas and in past it was very much worshipped in homes of the majority of upper caste families by having a snake grove (Sarpakkavu)

Naga worship is often associated with Keralopathi (formation of Kerala) as Parasuram sought the help of Snake King Vasuki to clear the salt mountains of Kerala which rose from the seas. In return, Vasuki and his Naga race got permanent right to reside across the new land as their own, so as with responsibility to protect the land. Due to this concept, Snakes are extremely revered in Kerala as they are believed to part of the family. As per belief, each family has their own protecting Snake family and their divine presence is essential for that family’s prosperity and fertility.

Snake King and Queen with the entire army of Snakes as worshipped in some temples

Typical Snakegrove (Sarpakavu) as worshipped in homes etc. Snakes are traditionally worshipped in a forest like ambiance. And as they belong to the family, houses are also constructed (called as Chitrakoodam) which denotes for a dwelling space for Snake Family.

As a concept, we don’t worship just Snake God- Vasuki alone. Rather we worship entire Snake race (Sarpakula) as such. This means every family or temple has their own Snake family that is typical like one’s own human maternal family- Brother, Sister, sister’s children etc. Snake lineage is considered as Matrilineal, hence it worked much like how upper castes lineage moved. So in each family, they worship their snake family’s elder brother and sister. Some even have local names much like humans.

The pictorial concept of Nagaraja (Vasuki) as on left and Nagayakshi on right

In divine concept, we worship Nagaraja (Vasuki) and his sister Nagayakshi (Manasa). Nagaraja and Nagayakshi always be worshipped with their Generals (assistants) of Snake army represented as ordinary snake idols as well as with Chitrakoodam (snake house). In some places, Nagayakshi is believed to be the wife of Nagaraja with Nagachamudi as the sister.

Naga worship as in Manarashala temple with Nagaraja in the center and Nagayakshi and Sarpayakshi on side accompanied by Takshaka (General of Snake Army) behind to Yakshi.

Manarashala temple is the only temple to have a Priestess to do the pooja as Nagaraja was born here and he was extremely attached to his mother. Hence the senior lady of the house is considered as the mother of snakes (Nagamatha or Amma as popularly known) and she has the only right to feed the snake family.

Nagamatha or Amma holding the baby Nagaraja during the Ayilam festival in Mannarashala temple.

There are few dedicated Snake temples. The most famous being Mannarashala temple which is believed to be a place where Nagaraja was born as a baby boy to a Nampoothiri family. Due to this tradition, Manarashala is often regarded as the most celebrated Snake temple in Kerala. Apart from this, Pambummekkattu temple near Thrissur is regarded as one of the oldest temples, believed to be first places where Nagaraja has manifested his divine form. There is also a dedicated temple to Nagayakshi in Vettikkottu near Kollam. The famous Nagercoil temple in Kanyakumari was also a celebrated temple dedicated to Snake king, which has gone to TN after Kanyakumari was transferred.

As a concept, Nagas are believed to be protectors of fertility, hence heavily worshiped by childless couples for restoring their fertility. The curse of Nagas/Sarpas is regarded as the most dreaded, that can affect around 7 generations of a family and destroy the fertility and eyesight. Due to these factors, Naga temples are regarded as a sort of place for the redemption of their sins that may be classified as Nagadosa. Turmeric, milk are the main offerings to Nagas.

These are the key deities worshipped in Kerala.

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Then every temple has a sub-shrine for Ganapati as such. Individual Ganapati worship is too low, though every pooja or homa starts with invoking Ganapati thro’ Ganapathi Homam.

Ganapathi is more worshipped in form of worshipping elephant as such. Festivites like Annayottu or Mass feeding of Elephants are very typical to Kerala as to celebrate the happiness of Ganapati thro’ elephant worship

Kerala has a Muruga worship as such, though it's not extensive as like in neighboring Tamil Nadu. There are few famous Subramanian temples (Muruga as such is called Subramanian in Kerala), but the cult is not extensive. This is primarily because Malayalees believe that Murugan lives in nearby Palani hills and hence don’t find enough myths to connect to local places. Due to this reason, we visit Palani commonly rather having many shrines in Kerala.

The famous Haripadu Subramaniyan temple. Picture was taken during the festival period when State Police makes their guard of honor to the deity.

There are certain deities that are specially worshiped like Dhanwanthari (God of Ayurveda), Sudarshana Murthy (Sudarshana Chakra of Lord Vishnu), Vishnu Maya (an occult god) etc.

Dhwanthari Moorthy- God of Ayurveda

Sudarshana Moorthy- The discus in hand of Vishnu

Vishnumaya, popularly known as Kuttitachathan is a popular god of the occult.

Another unique worship culture is that of Yakshis, Gandharvas, and demi-gods like that. The concept of Yakshi worship is very strong in Kerala and many temples have Yakshi shrines as guarding goddess. Gandharva worship was once extensive, but now got limited due to negative connotation existing around Gandharvas.

Yakshi Worship in Kerala, much similar to Naga worship as Yakshis are worship in Kavu or Groves.

Gandharava worship as seen in few places in Kerala.

One important deity which is very popular across India, but rarely worshipped in Kerala is Hanuman. Kerala doesn't have a native Hanuman worship culture. Hardly 4 or 5 temples exist in entire Kerala where Hanuman is worshipped with Malayalee rites. There are a couple of Hanuman temples in Kerala which are actually not Malayalee temples, but belonging to Tulu Brahmins, GSB Konkanis, and Tamil communities. This is primarily of the traditional aversion of Nampoothiri community to invoke Hanuman’s energy using tantric means. As the belief of fierce energy is associated with Hanuman, most of Nampoothiris don’t dare to perform any regular rites or poojas associated with Hanuman other than few who are expert in it. Even some temples that have a sub-shrine meant for Hanuman, normally priests from Embranthiri community (old Tulu Brahmins) do the rituals as they don’t have such a concept. The interesting example is in Suchindram temple located in Kanyakumari district. As the temple was part of Travancore earlier, all its deities' poojas are done in Malayalee tantric style, except for its famous Hanuman shrine. Suchindram’s Hanuman is reputed across the country for being one of the tallest traditional idol. However historically Nampoothiris don’t worship this idol due to which its Tamil Archaraks do the poojas for this idol in Tamil style.

Alathiyoor Hanuman temple, one of the very few/rare Malayalee temple for Hanuman.

Some other deities as such worshiped are Chamudi, Yogaeswaran (a form believed to be Shiva), Gullikan (another form of Shiva which is done thro’ ritualistic dance), Saraswati (there are 4 temples dedicated to Saraswati as such).

Dakshina Mookambika temple near Kochi, one of the few Saraswati temples in Kerala

Gulikan Thira, a ritualistic artform where the dancer is believed to be Gulikan, a form of Shiva

There are certain non-Brahminical concepts like Muthappan (a form of Shiva worshipped in Dravidian style). So as in Malabar, there are a lot of temples that go outside the Brahminical concept of temples, by being Kavus (Groves). In such temples, its mostly ritualistic dance performances like Theyyam etc defines the concept of deity.

The concept of Muthappan is one of the key Non-Brahminical form of worship as seen in Malabar. The tradition is famous in Parassinikadavu Muthappan temple in Kannur, which is believed to be a form of tribal Shiva, which is manifested in form of ritualistic dance. Its a concept where devotees pray to the dancer in Muthappan costume, believed to be tranced as God who hears their problems and suggests ways to resolve.

Theyyams are much similar to the concept of Muthappan. But they represent various forms of Devis who performs in front of the Kavus/Groves by becoming tranced as Goddess and helps people to resolve their problem thro’ divine prophecies.

Thirayattam is similar to Theyyam, where the dancers become gods and worshipped as deities as such

Padayani is the traditional Dravidian concept of Lord Shiva and his Bhootas dancing in front of their devotees. Its currently popular ritualistic traditions of South Kerala

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However unlike TN or Karnataka, one rarely finds a huge diverse temple deity culture in Kerala, as Nampoothiris effectively streamlined and brought entire temple culture to its concept of the temple since 10th century. Due to which, the concept of roadside worship culture or makeshift temples or temples meant for certain castes etc isn’t seen as such in Kerala. Ezhava community has tried building temples outside the traditional fold under its community organization- SNDP. The original idea was to put forward a non-brahminical form of worship. However as Malayalees heavily adhere to the Tantric form of worship, soon SNDP temples got into Nampoothiri styled tantric form of worship and ended up creating its own priestly community much on likes of Brahmins with the same form of worship techniques.